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[88] Even though other drugs of dependence can have withdrawal states lasting 6 months or longer, this does not appear to occur with cigarette withdrawal

Second, hypertension was ascertained by self-report of a doctors diagnosis, which may underestimate true prevalence due to undiagnosed cases or overestimate it if participants misunderstood or misrecollected what their doctor communicated

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Indeed, COPD and lung cancer have many common biological mechanisms, including chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, matrix degradation, genetic susceptibility, lung barrier dysfunction, and epithelialmesenchymal transition (EMT) [4, 59, 61]

TABLE 1 The effects of cigarette smoke toxicants on intestinal microbiota